Ad copy
The printed text or spoken words in an advertisement.
Adjacencies
Time periods immediately before and after a television program, normally used as a commercial break between programs.
Adnorm
A measure of readership averages for print publications over a two-year period, used as a baseline for comparing specific ads to an average.
Advertiser
The manufacturer, service company, retailer, or supplier who advertises their product or service.
Advertising
A paid, mediated, form of communication from an identifiable source, designed to persuade the receiver to take some action, now or in the future. (This definition is based on the following study: Richards, J. I., and Curran, C. M. (2002). Oracles on "Advertising": Searching for a Definition. Journal of Advertising, Summer, 31(2), 63-77.)
Advertising budget
Money set aside by the advertiser to pay for advertising. There are a variety of methods for determining the most desirable size of an advertising budget.
Advertising elasticity
The relationship between a change in advertising budget and the resulting change in product sales.
Advertising plan
An explicit outline of what goals an advertising campaign should achieve, how to accomplish those goals, and how to determine whether or not the campaign was successful in obtaining those goals.
Advertising research
Research conducted to improve the efficacy of advertising. It may focus on a specific ad or campaign, or may be directed at a more general understanding of how advertising works or how consumers use the information in advertising. It can entail a variety of research approaches, including psychological, sociological, economic, and other perspectives.
Advertorial
An advertisement that has the appearance of a news article or editorial, in a print publication. See Infomercial, below.
Advocacy advertising
Advertising used to promote a position on a political, controversial or other social issue.
Agency commission
The agency's fee for designing and placing advertisements. Historically, this was calculated as 15 percent of the amount spent to purchase space or time in the various media used for the advertising. In recent years the commission has, in many cases, become negotiable, and may even be based on some measure of the campaign's success.
AIDA
Stands for Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action. This is a historical model of how advertising works, by first getting the consumer's attention, then their interest, etc.
Aided recall
A research method frequently used to determine what consumers remember about an advertisement they have seen or heard.
Airbrush
An artist's technique for creating a smooth gradation of color. It is often used to cover imperfections in a photograph, e.g., in a model's skin.
Ala carte services
Rather than provide all advertising services for one price, an agency may provide only the services that a client wishes to purchase.
Appeal
The advertisement's selling message.
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Area of dominant influence (ADI)
A geographic designation, used by Arbitron, that specifies which counties fall into a specific television market. See, also, Designated Market Area.
Art proof
The artwork for an ad, to be submitted for client approval.
Artwork
The visual components of an ad, not including the typeset text.
Audience
The number of people or households exposed to a vehicle, without regard to whether they actually saw or heard the material conveyed by that vehicle.
Audience duplication
The number of people who saw or heard more than one of the programs or publications in which an ad was placed.
Audilog
A diary kept by selected audience members to record which television programs they watched, as a means of rating television shows. Used by A.C. Nielsen.
Audimeter
An electronic recording device used by A.C. Nielsen to track when a television set is in use, and to what station it is set.
Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC)
A company that audits the circulation of print publications, to insure that reported circulation figures are accurate.
Availability
Advertising time on radio or television that is available for purchase, at a specific time.
Average Audience (AA)
The number of homes or persons tuned to a television program during an average minute, or the number of persons who viewed an average issue of a print publication.
Back to back
Running more than one commercial, with one following immediately after another.
Bait advertising
Advertising a product at a very low price, when it is difficult or even impossible to obtain the product for the price advertised.
Barter
Exchanging merchandise, or something other than money, for advertising time or space.
Billboard
(1) An outdoor sign or poster; (2) Sponsor identification at the beginning or end of a television show.
Billings
Total amount charged to clients, including the agency commission, media costs, production costs, etc.
Bleed
Allowing a picture or ad to extend beyond the normal margin of a printed page, to the edge of the page.
Blow-in card
An advertisement, subscription request, or other printed card "blown" into a print publication rather than bound into it.
Body copy
The text of a print ad, not including the headline, logo, or subscript material.
Boutique
An agency that provides a limited service, such as one that does creative work but does not provide media planning, research, etc. Usually, this refers to a relatively small company.
Brand development index (BDI)
A comparison of the percent of a brand's sales in a market to the percent of the national population in that same market.
Brand manager
Person who has marketing responsibilities for a specific brand.
Brand name
Name used to distinguish one product from it's competitors. It can apply to a single product, an entire product line, or even a company.
Broadsheet
Standard size newspaper.
Broadside
A promotion that is printed on a single large sheet of paper, usually on only one side of the paper, as opposed to a tabloid or other off-size newspaper.
Bulldog edition
An edition of a print publication that is available earlier than other editions. Usually, this is the early edition of a large circulation newspaper.
Buried position
Placing an ad between other ads in a print publication, so that readers are less likely to see it.
Business-to-business advertising
Advertising directed to other businesses, rather than to consumers.
Camera-ready art
Artwork that is in sufficiently finished form to be photographed for printing.
Caption
(1) An advertisement's headline; (2) The text accompanying an illustration or photograph.
Car card
A poster placed in buses, subways, etc. Also called a Bus card.
Card rate
Media rates published by a broadcast station or print publication on a "rate card." This is typically the highest rate charged by a vehicle.
Category development index (CDI)
A comparison of the percent of sales of a product category in a market, to the percent of population in that market.
Cease-and-desist order
An order by the Federal Trade Commission requiring an advertiser to stop running a deceptive or unfair advertisement, campaign, or claim.
Chain break
A pause for station identification, and commercials, during a network telecast.
Channels of distribution
The routes used by a company to distribute its products, e.g., through wholesalers, retailers, mail order, etc.
Circulation
Of a print publication, the average number of copies distributed. For outdoor advertising this refers to the total number of people who have an opportunity to observe a billboard or poster. This term sometimes is used for broadcast, as well, but the term "audience" is used more frequently.
Classified advertising
Print advertising that is limited to certain classes of goods and services, and usually limited in size and content.
Clearance
The process by which a vehicle reviews an advertisement for legal, ethical, and taste standards, before accepting the ad for publication.
Client
The ad agency's term for the advertisers it represents.
Closing date
The day final copy and other materials must be at the vehicle in order to appear in a specific issue or time slot.
Clutter
When an advertisement is surrounded by other ads, thereby forcing it to compete for the viewer's or listener's attention.
Coincidental survey
A survey of viewers or listeners of broadcast programming, conducted during the program.
Collateral materials
Sales brochures, catalogs, spec sheets, etc., generally delivered to consumers (or dealers) by a sales person rather than by mass media. These materials are considered "collateral" to the sales message delivered by the sales person.
Color proof
An early full-color print of a finished advertisement, used to evaluate the ad's final appearance.
Color separation
A full-color ad normally is generated through printing of four separate colors: yellow, cyan, magenta, and black. The color separation consists of four separate screens; one for each of those four colors.
Column inch
A common unit of measure by newspapers, whereby ad space is purchased by the width, in columns, and the depth, in inches. For example, an ad that is three standard columns wide and 5 inches tall (or deep) would be 15 column inches.
Combination rate
A special media pricing arrangement that involves purchasing space or time on more than one vehicle, in a package deal. This is frequently offered where different vehicles share a common owner.
Commercial advertising
Advertising that involves commercial interests rather than advocating a social or political cause.
Communication process
A description or explanation of the chain-of-events involved in communicating information from one party to another.
Comparative advertising
An advertising appeal that consists of explicitly comparing one product brand to a competitive brand.
Competition-oriented pricing
A pricing strategy that is based upon what the competition does.
Competitive parity
A method of determining an advertising budget, designed to maintain the current "share of voice."
Comprehensive layout
A rough layout of an ad designed for presentation only, but so detailed as to appear very much like the finished ad will look.
Consent order
Also called a consent decree, this is a Federal Trade Commission order, by which an advertiser agrees to make changes in an advertisement or campaign, without the need for a legal hearing.
Consumer advertising
Advertising directed at a person who will actually use the product for their own benefit, rather than to a business or dealer.
Consumer behavior
Study of how people behave when obtaining, using, and disposing of products (and services).
Consumer jury test
A method of testing advertisements that involves asking consumers to compare, rank, and otherwise evaluate the ads.
Consumer stimulants
Promotional efforts designed to stimulate short-term purchasing behavior. Coupons, premiums, and samples are examples of consumer stimulants.
Consumerism
(1) Advocating the rights of consumers, as against the efforts of advertisers, (2) The emphasis of advertising and marketing efforts toward creating consumers. These two definitions are almost opposite in meaning, but the former is commonly used today, while the latter was common prior to the 1970s.
Continuity
Scheduling advertisements to appear at regular intervals over a period of time.
Continuous advertising
Scheduling advertisements to appear regularly, even during times when consumers are not likely to purchase the product or service, so that consumers are constantly reminded of the brand.
Cooperative (Co-op) program
A system by which ad costs are divided between two or more parties. Usually, such programs are offered by manufacturers to their wholesalers or retailers, as a means of encouraging those parties to advertise the product.
Cooperative advertising
Same as Cooperative program, above.
Copy
All spoken words or written text in an advertisement.
Copy platform
See Creative Strategy, below.
Copy testing
Research to determine an ad's effectiveness, based on consumer responses to the ad.
Corporate advertising campaign
A campaign that promotes a corporation, rather than a product or service sold by that corporation.
Corrective advertising
Advertisements or messages within advertisements, that the Federal Trade Commission orders a company to run, for the purpose of correcting consumers' mistaken impressions created by prior advertising.
Cost efficiency
For a media schedule, refers to the relative balance of effectively meeting reach and frequency goals at the lowest price.
Cost per inquiry
The cost of getting one person to inquire about your product or service. This is a standard used in direct response advertising.
Cost per rating point (CPP)
The cost, per 1 percent of a specified audience, of buying advertising space in a given media vehicle.
Cost per thousand (CPM)
The cost, per 1000 people reached, of buying advertising space in a given media vehicle.
Counter advertising
Advertising that takes a position contrary to an advertising message that preceded it. Such advertising may be used to take an opposing position on a controversial topic, or to counter an impression that might be made by another party's advertising.
Coverage
A measure of a media vehicle's reach, within a specific geographic area.
Creative strategy
An outline of what message should be conveyed, to whom, and with what tone. This provides the guiding principles for copywriters and art directors who are assigned to develop the advertisement. Within the context of that assignment, any ad that is then created should conform to that strategy. The written statement of creative strategy is sometimes called a "copy platform."
Creatives
The art directors and copywriters in an ad agency.
Crop
To eliminate or cut off specific portions of a photograph or illustration.
Dailies
Also called rushes, this refers to unedited film. These are called Dailies because the film typically is viewed from a single day's shooting, even if the final commercial or program will take many days or weeks of shooting.
DAGMAR
This refers to a process of establishing goals for an ad campaign such that it is possible to determine whether or not the goals have been met. It stands for Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results.
Day-after recall test
A research method that tests consumers' memories the day after they have seen an ad, to assess the ad's effectiveness.
Daypart
Broadcast media divide the day into several standard time periods, each of which is called a "daypart." Cost of purchasing advertising time on a vehicle varies by the daypart selected.
Decay constant
An estimate of the decline in product sales if advertising were discontinued.
Deceptive advertising
FTC definition: A representation, omission, act or practice that is likely to mislead consumers acting reasonably under the circumstances. To be regulated, however, a deceptive claim must also be material. See Materiality, below.
Demographic segmentation
Dividing consumers into groups based on selected demographics, so that different groups can be treated differently. For example, two advertisements might be developed, one for adults and one for teenagers, because the two groups are expected to be attracted to different types of advertising appeal. See Demographics, below.
Demographics
Basic objective descriptive classifications of consumers, such as their age, sex, income, education, size of household, ownership of home, etc. This does not include classification by subjective attitudes or opinions of consumers. See Psychographics, below.
Depth interview
A method of research, whereby a trained interviewer meets with consumers individually and asks a series of questions designed to detect attitudes and thoughts that might be missed when using other methods.
Direct house
An advertising specialties company that manufactures and then sells its goods directly with its own sales force, rather than through retailers.
Direct mail
Marketing communications delivered directly to a prospective purchaser via the U.S. Postal Service or a private delivery company.
Direct marketing
Sending a promotional message directly to consumers, rather than via a mass medium. Includes methods such as Direct Mail and Telemarketing.
Direct premium
A premium provided to the consumer at the same time as the purchase.
Direct response
Promotions that permit or request consumers to directly respond to the advertiser, by mail, telephone, e-mail, or some other means of communication. Some practitioners use this as a synonym for Direct Marketing.
Directory advertising
Advertising that appears in a directory (telephone directory, tourism brochure, etc.). This frequently connotes advertising that consumers intentionally seek.
Display advertisement
(1) In print media, any advertisement other than a classified ad. (2) An ad that stands alone, such as window sign.
Dissolve
Fading from one scene to another in a film or television production.
Distributor
A company or person that distributes a manufacturer's goods to retailers. The terms "wholesaler" and "jobber" are sometimes used to describe distributors.
Door-opener
A product or advertising specialty given by a sales person to consumers to induce them to listen to a sales pitch.
Dummy
A copy (e.g., xerographic duplicate) of an ad, or even blank sheets of paper, provided to a printer or artist as an example of the size, color, or other aspect of the ad to be produced.
Duplicated audience
That portion of an audience that is reached by more than one media vehicle.
Earned rate
A discounted media rate, based on volume or frequency of media placement.
End-user
The person who actually uses a product, whether or not they are the one who purchased the product.
Envelope stuffer
A direct mail advertisement included with another mailed message (such as a bill).
Equal time
A Federal Communications Commission requirement that when a broadcaster allows a political candidate broadcast a message, opposing candidates must be offered equal broadcast time.
Eighty-twenty rule
A rule-of-thumb that, for the typical product category, eighty percent of the products sold will be consumed by twenty percent of the customers.
Exposure
Consumers who have seen (or heard) a media vehicle, whether or not they paid attention to it.
Eye tracking
A research method that determines what part of an advertisement consumers look at, by tracking the pattern of their eye movements.
Factory pack
A premium attached to a product, in or on the packaging.
Fairness Doctrine
Until the mid-1980s, a Federal Communications Commission policy that required broadcasters to provide time for opposing viewpoints any time they broadcast an opinion supporting one side of a controversial issue.
Family brand
A brand name that is used for more than one product, i.e., a family of products.
Fixed-sum-per-unit method
A method of determining an advertising budget, which is based directly on the number of units sold.
Flat rate
A media rate that allows for no discounts.
Flighting
A media schedule that involves more advertising at certain times and less advertising during other time periods.
Focus group interview
A research method that brings together a small group of consumers to discuss the product or advertising, under the guidance of a trained interviewer.
Font
A typeface style, such as Helvetica, Times Roman, etc., in a single size. A single font includes all 26 letters, along with punctuation, numbers, and other characters.
Four Ps
Stands for Product, Price, Place (i.e., distribution), and Promotion. This is also known as the Marketing Mix, see below.
Four-color process
A printing process that combines differing amounts of each of four colors (red, yellow, blue & black) to provide a full-color print.
Franchised position
An ad position in a periodic publication (e.g., back cover) to which an advertiser is given a permanent or long-term right of use.
Free-standing insert (FSI)
An advertisement or group of ads inserted - but not bound - in a print publication, on pages that contain only the ads and are separate from any editorial or entertainment matter.
Frequency
(1) Number of times an average person or home is exposed to a media vehicle (or group of vehicles), within a given time period. (2) The position of a television or radio station's broadcast signal within the electromagnetic spectrum.
Full position
An ad that is surrounded by reading matter in a newspaper, making it more likely consumers will read the ad. This is a highly desirable location for an ad.
Full-service agency
An agency that handles all aspects of the advertising process, including planning, design, production, and placement. Today, full-service generally suggests that the agency also handles other aspects of marketing communication, such as public relations, sales promotion, and direct marketing.
Galley proof
A typeset copy of an ad or editorial material, before it is made into pages for final production.
Galvanometer test
A research method that measures physiological changes in consumers when asked a question or shown some stimulus material (such as an ad).
Gatefold
Double or triple-size pages, generally in magazines, that fold out into a large advertisement.
Guaranteed circulation
A media rate that comes with a guarantee that the publication will achieve a certain circulation.
Generic brand
Products not associated with a private or national brand name.
Gravure
A printing process that uses an etched printing cylinder.
Green advertising
Advertising that promotes a product or service's ability to help or, more likely, not hurt the environment.
Grid card
A broadcast media rate card that lists rates on a grid, according to the time periods that might be selected for the ad.
Gross audience
The audiences of all vehicles or media in a campaign, combined. Some or much of the gross audience may actually represent duplicated audience.
Gross impressions
Total number of unduplicated people or households represented by a given media schedule.
Gross rating points (GRPs)
Reach times average frequency. This is a measure of the advertising weight delivered by a vehicle or vehicles within a given time period.
Gutter
The inside margins of two pages that face each other in a print publication.
Halftone
A method of reproducing a black and white photograph or illustration, by representing various shades of gray as a series of black and white dots.
Hierarchy-of-effects theory
A series of steps by which consumers receive and use information in reaching decisions about what actions they will take (e.g., whether or not to buy a product).
Holding power
The ability to keep an audience throughout a broadcast, rather than having them change channels. It is represented as a percent of the total audience.
Holdover audience
The percent of a program's audience that watched or listened to the immediately preceding program on the same station. Also called Inherited audience (see below).
Hologram
A three-dimensional photograph or illustration, created with an optical process that uses lasers.
Horizontal discount
A discount on a media purchase resulting from a promise to advertise over an extended period of time.
Horizontal publications
Business publications designed to appeal to people of similar interests or responsibilities in a variety of companies or industries.
Hot composition
A method of typesetting that uses molten metal to form the letters for a typeface. See Cold type, above.
House agency
An advertising agency owned and operated by an advertiser, which handles the advertiser's account.
House organ
A publication owned and operated by an advertiser, and used to promote the advertiser's products or services.
Households using television (HUT)
The number of households in a given market watching television at a certain time. This term is used by A.C. Nielsen.
Image advertising
Promoting the image, or general perception, of a product or service, rather than promoting its functional attributes. Commonly used for differentiating brands of parity products (e.g., "This is a woman's cigarette"). .
Imprinted product
A promotional product, this is a product with a company logo or advertising message printed on it.
In-pack premium
A premium included in the packaging of another product (e.g., buy a can of shaving cream and get a free razor in the same package). The term Package enclosure is also used.
Independent contractor
A person who is hired by a company, but works for himself/herself. The company is a client, rather than an employer.
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Industrial advertising
A form of business-to-business advertising (see above), this is advertising aimed at manufacturers. This advertising typically promotes parts, equipment, and raw materials used in the manufacturing process.
Infomercial
A commercial that is very similar in appearance to a news program, talk show, or other non-advertising program content. The broadcast equivalent of an Advertorial (see above).
Inherited audience
Same as Holdover audience, above.
Inquiries
Consumer response to a company's advertising or other promotional activities, such as coupons. Used for measuring the effectiveness of some promotions.
Insert
An advertisement, collection of advertisements, or other promotional matter published by an advertiser or group of advertisers, to be inserted in a magazine or newspaper. It may be bound into the publication, or be inserted without binding. See Free-standing insert, above.
Insertion
Refers to an ad in a print publication.
Insertion order
An agency or advertiser's authorization for a publisher to run a specific ad in a specific print publication on a certain date at a specified price.
Institutional advertising
Advertising to promote an institution or organization, rather than a product or service, in order to create public support and goodwill.
Intaglio
A form of printing that results in a raised or engraved print surface.
Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC)
A management concept that is designed to make all aspects of marketing communication (e.g., advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and direct marketing) work together as a unified force, rather than permitting each to work in isolation.
International advertising
Advertising a product or service in a country other than where it originates.
Island display
An in-store product display situated away from competing products, typically in the middle or at the end of an aisle.
Island position
A print ad that is completely surrounded by editorial material, or a broadcast ad surrounded by program content, with no adjoining advertisements to compete for audience attention.
Jingle
A short song, usually mentioning a brand or product benefit, used in a commercial.
Jumble display
A mixture of products or brands on a single display, such as a clearance table.
Kerning
Spacing between the letters of a word.
Layout
A drawing that indicates the relative positions of the elements (e.g., headline, photo, logo, body copy, etc.) of an ad.
Leading
The space between lines of type.
Letterpress
A printing method that stamps ink onto paper, using raised lettering.
Lifestyle segmentation
Separating consumers into groups, based on their hobbies, interests, and other aspects of their lifestyles.
Line conversion
A high-contrast reproduction of an illustration, where all shading is reduced to either black or white.
Local advertising
(1) Advertising to a local merchant or business as opposed to regional or national advertising. (2) Advertising placed at rates available to local merchants.
Local rate
An advertising rate charged to a local advertiser , typically a retailer, by local media and publications, as distinguished from a national rate that is charged to a national advertiser, typically a manufacturer.
Logotype (logo)
A brand name, publication title, or the like, presented in a special lettering style or typeface and used in the manner of a trademark.
drawing. Lotteries may not be used as promotion devices under U.S. laws.
Loyalty index
Frequency of listenership of a particular broadcast station.
Macro marketing
A type of marketing in which a company adapts itself to uncontrollable factors within the industry.
Mail-in premium
A premium obtained by mailing in a suitable response to the manufacturer or distributor, with or without money.
Mail-order advertising
Advertising which supplies paperwork for the purpose of soliciting a purchase made through the mail.
Make good
(1) To present a commercial announcement after it "s scheduled time because of an error. (2) To rerun a commercial announcement because of technical difficulties the previous time it was run. (3) To rerun a print advertisement due to similar circumstances.
Marginal analysis
Technique of setting the advertising budget by assuming the point at which an additional dollar spent on advertising equals additional profit.
Market profile
A summary of the characteristics of a market, including information of typical purchasers and competitors, and often general information on the economy and retailing patterns of an area.
Market segmentation
To divide a market by a strategy directed at gaining a major portion of sales to a subgroup in a category, rather than a more limited share of purchases by all category users.
Market share
The percentage of a product category's sales, in terms of dollars or units, obtained by a brand, line, or company.
Marketing firm
A business that affects the distribution and sales of goods and services from producer to consumer; including products or service development, pricing, packaging, advertising, merchandising, and distribution.
Marketing mix
The levels and interplay of the elements of a product's or service's marketing efforts, including product features, pricing, packaging, advertising, merchandising, distribution, and marketing budget; especially as these elements affect sales results.
Marketing research
The systematic gathering, recording, analyzing, and use of data relating to the transfer and sale of goods and services from producer to consumer.
Master tape
An edited audio tape or video tape to be recorded on quantity prints or dubs.
Materiality
The FTC theoretically will not regulate a deceptive advertisement unless the deceptive claim is also material. This means, in simple terms, that the claim must be important to consumers, rather than trivial. The FTC requires that the deception be likely to affect consumers' "choice of, or conduct regarding, a product."
Matte shot
A camera shot made with a matte or mask in part of the frame to allow another shot to be printed in the opaque area.
Mechanical (paste-up)
A finished layout that is photographed for offset printing.
Media buying service
Agency that specializes in the services of media buying.
Media concentration theory
Technique of scheduling media that involves buying space in one medium only and developing strength through concentration.
Media dominance theory
Technique of scheduling media that involves buying a large amount of space in one medium, and shifting to another medium after achieving optimum coverage and frequency.
Media plan
A plan designed to select the proper demographics for an advertising campaign through proper media selection.
Media strategy
A plan of action by an advertiser for bringing advertising messages to the attention of consumers through the use of appropriate media.
Medium (plural, Media)
A vehicle or group of vehicles used to convey information, news, entertainment, and advertising messages to an audience. These include television, cable television, magazines, radio, billboards, etc.
Merchandising the advertising
The promoting of a firm"s advertising abilities to distributors.
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)
An urban area with a population of at least 50,000 that is designated by the Office of Management and Budget for statistical reporting purposes and used in audience measurement studies. This is generally synonymous with the former term Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area.
Micromarketing
The activities a firm practices in order to react controllably to external forces, e.g., setting objectives and selecting target markets.
Milline rate
Used to determine the cost effectiveness of advertising in a newspaper; reached by multiplying the cost per agate line by one million, then dividing by the circulation. Also referred to as Milline.
Motivation research
Used to investigate the psychological reasons why individuals buy specific types of merchandise, or why they respond to specific advertising appeals, to determine the base of brand choices and product preferences.
Narrowcasting
Using a broadcast medium to appeal to audiences with special interests. For example, the "All Knitting Station" would be a narrowcast, because it appeals to an audience with a specific interest.
National advertising
Advertising which is aimed at a National Market, as opposed to Local Advertising.
National brand
A nationally distributed product brand name. May also be distributed regionally or locally.
Near-pack (Near Pack Premium)
An item offered free or at a discount with the purchase of another product. The item can be positioned close to but may not touch the purchased product. A type of product promotion.
Negative
Developed film that contains an image that has reversed shadows and light areas.
Net cost
The costs associated with services rendered by an advertising agency excluding the agency commission.
Network
A national or regional group of affiliated broadcast stations contractually bound to distribute radio or television programs for simultaneous transmission.
Network option time
Programming time the network controls on each of its affiliate stations. Also referred to as network time.
Newsprint
A soft, course wood pulp paper used in printing newspapers.
Nielsen rating
A measurement of the percentage of U.S. television households tuned to a network program for a minute of its telecast.
Noncommercial advertising
Radio and television advertising that is designed to educate and promote ideas or institutions, e.g., public service announcements.
O & O station
Radio and television stations owned and operated by a network.
Off card
Refers to advertising time sold at a rate that does not appear on the rate card.
Offset lithography
A planographic printing process. A photographic image from a printing plate is transferred to a rubber blanket, which, in turn, transfers or prints the image onto the paper.
On-air tests
Tests recall among viewers of a commercial or program during a real broadcast of the tested communication.
On-pack (On-pack Premium)
Used to promote sales of a product. Discount coupons or gifts that are attached to or accompany the product to be purchased.
Open end
(1) Time left at the end of a commercial or program which is provided for the use of local advertising or station identification. (2) A radio or television program with no specific time to end.
Opticals
Visual effects used to instill interest as well as portray mood and continuity to a commercial. Dissolves, Cross fades, and Montages are all opticals.
Out-of-home advertising
Exposure to advertising and mass media away from one's home. Included are outdoor, point-of-purchase, and radio.
Outdoor advertising
Any outdoor sign that publicly promotes a product or service, such as billboards, movie kiosks, etc.
Overlay
A transparent or opaque covering used to protect designs or layouts in the form of separate transparent prints that combine to form a finished design or graphic.
Package
(1) A combination of programs or commercials offered by a network that is available for purchase by advertisers either singly or as a discounted package deal. (2) A merchandise enclosure or container.
Package insert
Separate advertising material included in merchandise packages that advertises goods or services; also referred to as Package Stuffer.
Panels
This includes regular and illuminated types of outdoor advertising. A regular panel is only seen during the daytime, while an illuminated panel is seen also from dusk until dawn.
Participation
Announcements made inside the context of a program as opposed to those shown during station breaks. (2) An announcement or amount of broadcasting time which is shared by several advertisers.
Pass-along readers
A reader which becomes familiar with a publication without the purchase of a publication. These readers are taken into account when calculating the total number of readers of a publication.
Paste-up
A camera-ready layout of illustrative and type material which is configured in the proper position on paperboard and is used for reproductive purposes.
Payout planning
Approach to advertising budgeting in which the dollars spent to advertise are represented as an investment toward sales and profits.
Per inquiry
An agreement between a media representative and an advertiser in which all advertising fees are paid based on a percentage of all money received from an advertiser's sales or inquires.
Percent-of-sales method
Method of determining the advertising budget based on an analysis of past sales, as well as a forecast for future sales.
Perceived risk
A functional or psychosocial risk a consumer feels he/she is taking when purchasing a product.
Personal selling
Sales made through a medium of face-to-face communication, personal correspondence, or personal telephone conversation, etc.
Personalize
To add a name or other personal information about the recipient on direct mail advertising.
Persuasion process
The process used by advertising to influence audience or prospect attitudes, especially purchase intent and product perception by appealing to reason or emotion.
Phantom
An illustration showing the exterior of an object as if it were transparent, while revealing interior detailing.
Photoanimation
A process of creating animation through the use of still photographs.
Photoboards
A set of still photographs made from a television commercial, accompanied with a script, to be kept as records by an agency or client.
Photoengraving
(1) The process of making letterpress printing plates by photochemical means. (2) A picture printed from a plate made by this process.
Photoplatemaking
A process which converts original art material into printing plates that are required to print ads.
Photostat
A type of high contrast photographic negative or positive in the form of paper. Also referred to as Stat.
Pica
(1) A unit of measurement for type specification and printing which measures width; 6 picas to one inch. (2) A size of type, 12 points.
Picture window
An ad layout in which the picture is placed at the top of the page, and the copy is placed below.
Piggyback
(1) A direct mail offer that is included free with another offer. (2) Two commercials which are shown back-to-back by the same sponsor.
Point
(1) A small unit of measurement for type, equal to 1/72 of an inch. (2) A small unit for measuring the thickness of paper, equaling 0.001 inch.
Point-of-Purchase (POP) displays
Advertising display material located at the retail store, usually placed in an area where payment is made, such as a check-out counter.
Positive
A photographic image which appears as the original image, as opposed to a negative which reverses the black and white.
Poster panel
An outdoor billboard in which advertising is displayed on printed paper sheets rather than being painted. The most widely used form of outdoor advertising; standard size approximately 25' x 12' with the image printed on sections of 24 to 30 sheets.
Posttesting
Testing the effects of an ad after it has appeared in the media.
Preemptible rate
A usually discounted rate for commercial time which is sold to an advertiser and is not guaranteed. Time may be sold to another advertiser who is willing to pay more; therefore, the advertiser buying this rate gambles to save money on the spot.
Preferred position
A position in a printed publication that is thought to attract most reader attention and is sold at a higher rate; for example, the back cover of a magazine.
Premium
An item, other than the product itself, which is offered free or at a nominal price as an incentive to purchase the advertised product or service.
Preprint
A reproduction of an advertisement which is viewed before actual publication and is created by an advertiser for special purposes, e.g., to serve as retail displays or to gain support from retailers.
Pretesting
Testing an advertisement or an audience sample prior to placing the ad in the media.
Primary demand advertising
Advertising designed for the generic product category, as opposed to selective demand advertising.
Prime time
The broadcast periods viewed or listened to by the greatest number of persons and for which a station charges the most for air time. In television, the hours are usually 8:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m. E.S.T. (7:00 p.m. to 10:00 p.m. C.S.T.).
Private brand
Product brand owned by a retailer, wholesaler, dealer, or merchant, as opposed to a manufacturer or producer, and bearing it's own company name or another name it owns exclusively. Also referred to as Private label.
Prize
Barters of merchandise given as prizes on television or radio shows in return for mentions of the brand names of the merchandise donated.
Product differentiation
Developing unique product differences with the intent to influence demand.
Product life cycle
A marketing theory in which products or brands follow a sequence of stages including : introduction, growth, maturity, and sales decline.
Product positioning
The consumer perception of a product or service as compared to it's competition.
Product-related segmentation
A method of identifying consumers by the amount of product usage, usually categorized demographically or psychographically.
Production
Process of physically preparing the advertising idea into a print or broadcast advertisement.
Professional advertising
Advertising directed toward professionals such as doctors, dentists, and pharmacists, etc., who are in a position to promote products to their patients or customers.
Promotion
All forms of communication other than advertising that call attention to products and services by adding extra values toward the purchase. Includes temporary discounts, allowances, premium offers, coupons, contests, sweepstakes, etc.
Promotional mix
Using several different types of communication to support marketing goals which include Advertising (see above), Personal selling (see above), Publicity (see above), and Sales promotions (see below).
Promotional product
A product imprinted with, or otherwise carrying, a logo or promotional message. Also called an Advertising Specialty.
Proof
An impression on paper of type, an engraving or the like, for the purpose of checking the correctness and quality of the material to be printed.
Psychographics
A term that describes consumers or audience members on the basis of psychological characteristics initially determined by standardized tests.
Public relations (PR)
Communication with various sectors of the public to influence their attitudes and opinions in the interest of promoting a person, product, or idea.
Public relations advertising
Advertising by a corporation that focuses on public interest but maintains a relationship to the corporation's products or agencies.
Public service advertising (PSA)
Advertising with a central focus on public welfare, and is generally sponsored by a non-profit institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group.
Publicity
A type of public relations in the form of a news item or story which conveys information about a product, service, or idea in the media.
Puffery
A legal exaggeration of praise lavished on a product that stops just short of deception.
Pulsing
The use of advertising in regular intervals, as opposed to seasonal patterns.
Pupilometrics
A method of advertising research in which a study is conducted on the relationship between a viewer's pupil dilation and the interest factor of visual stimuli.
Psychological segmentation
The separation of consumers into psychological characteristic categories on the basis of standardized tests.
Qualitative research
A method of advertising research that emphasizes the quality of meaning in consumer perceptions and attitudes; for example, in-depth interviews and focus groups.
Quantitative research
A method of advertising research that emphasizes measurement of incidence of consumer trends within a population.
Random sample
A sample taken from any given population in which each person maintains equal chances of being selected.
Rate
(1) The amount charged by a communications medium to an advertiser based on per unit of space or time purchased. The rate may vary from national to local campaigns, or may be a fixed rate. (2) To estimate a particular media"s audience size based on a research sample.
Rate card
Information cards, provided by both print and broadcast media, which contain information concerning advertising costs, mechanical requirements, issue dates, closing dates, cancellation dates, and circulation data, etc.
Rating point
(1) In television, one percentage of all TV households who are viewing a particular station at a given time. (2) In radio, one percentage of all listeners who are listening to a particular station at a given time. Both instances vary depending on time of day.
Reach
(1) The estimated number of individuals in the audience of a broadcast that is reached at least once during a specific period of time. (2) Also applies to Outdoor advertising audiences.
Readership
(1) The total number of readers of a publication (includes Primary and Pass-along readers). (2) The percentage of people that can recall a particular advertisement, aided or unaided.
Recognition
(1) Formal acknowledgment given by a communications medium to an advertising agency to recognize that agency as being bona fide, competent, and ethical; therefore, entitled to discounts. (2) The ability of research subjects to recall a particular ad or campaign when they see or hear it.
Reference group
A group of people or organization of which an individual respects, identifies with, or aspires to join, e.g., membership or associative groups.
Referral premium
A premium offered to customers for helping sell a product or service to a friend or acquaintance.
Register marks
Indicator symbols located in the margins of negatives to be used as guides for perfect registration.
Renewal rate
The percentage of individuals that renew their print media subscriptions to extend beyond the previous expiration date.
Rep or Representative
A person who solicits advertising space on behalf of a particular medium.
Resolution
Refers to the clarity of a television image as received by a set.
Restricted line
Sales items that are not legally sold in certain geographic areas, or only under special legal restrictions.
Retail advertising
Advertising which promotes local merchandisers' goods and services. Also referred to as Local Advertising.
Retail trading zone
Defined by the Audit Bureau of Circulation as the area beyond an urban area whose residents regularly trade with retail merchants within the urban area.
Retouching
To alter photographs, artwork, or film to emphasize or introduce desired features and also to eliminate unwanted ones.
Romance card
Written material that accompanies an advertising specialty, providing information about the product and its background.
Rotogravure
A magazine supplement that is printed by a gravure process, and run on a rotary press. This process is useful for large runs of pictorial effects.
Rough
An unfinished layout of an ad which shows only a general conception to be presented for analysis, criticism, and approval.
Rough cut
A preliminary arrangement of film or tape shots that are roughly edited together without voice-over or music to serve purpose in the early stages of editing.
Run-of-press (ROP)
A newspaper publisher's option to place an ad anywhere in the publication that they choose, as opposed to Preferred position. Also referred to as Run-of paper.
Run-of-schedule (ROS)
A station's option to place a commercial in any time slot that they choose.
Sales promotion
Marketing activities that stimulate consumer purchasing and dealer effectiveness through a combination of personal selling, advertising, and all supplementary selling activities.
Sales-response function
Refers to the effect of advertising on sales.
Sans-serif type
A typestyle of lettering with no serifs, or cross strokes at the end of main strokes.
Scene setting
The process of using realistic sounds to stimulate noise in backgrounds during radio production such as car horns, sirens, recorded laughter, etc.
Screen
(1) A printing process in which a squeegee forces paint or ink through a screen which is decorated with stenciled designs onto the paper. (2) The surface onto which an image of a slide or television picture is shown.
Seasonality
The variation in sales for goods and services throughout the year, depending on the season, e.g. hot chocolate is advertised more in the winter, as opposed to summer months.
Seasonal rating adjustments
In broadcast media, rating modifications that reflect changes in the season, e.g. weather and holidays.
Selective demand advertising
Advertising which promotes a particular manufacturer's brand as opposed to a generic product. See Primary demand.
Selective distribution
Allows manufacturers to maintain more control over the way their products are sold and discourages price competition among sellers of the products by distributing their products only to those wholesalers and retailers who follow the manufacturer's guidelines.
Self-liquidating premium
A premium offer paid by the consumer whose total cost including handling fees are paid for in the basic sales transaction.
Self-mailer
A direct-mail piece in which no envelope or wrapper is required for mailing.
Semi-liquidator
A premium offer that is partially paid by the consumer as well as the manufacturer.
Semiotics
Refers to theories regarding symbolism and how people glean meaning from words, sounds, and pictures. Sometimes used in researching names for various products and services.
Serif type
Short, decorative cross lines or tails at the ends of main strokes in some typefaces, such as Roman lettering.
Sets in use (SIU)
The percent of television sets that are tuned into a particular broadcast during a specific amount of time.
Share-of-audience
The percent of audiences that are tuned into a particular medium at a given time, e.g. the number of people watching television between the hours of 8:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m.
Shelf screamers (shelf talkers)
A printed advertising message which is hung over the edge of a retail store shelf, e.g. "On Special," or "Sale item."
Signature
(1) A musical theme associated with a television program, radio show, or a particular product or service. Also referred to as a Theme song. (2) Single printing sheet which folds into 4, 8, 12, 16, and so on pages to be gathered and bound to form a part of a book, or pamphlet.
Silk screening
A color printing method in which ink is forced through a stencil placed over a screen that blocks out areas of an image, and onto the printing surface. Also referred to as Serigraphy.
Simmons Market Research Bureau (SMRB)
A syndicated service which provides audience exposure and product usage data for print and broadcast media.
Situation analysis
The gathering and evaluation of information to identify the target group and strategic direction of an advertising campaign.
Slicks
A high-quality proof of an advertisement printed on glossy paper which is suited for reproduction.
Soft sell
The technique of using low pressure appeals in advertisements and commercials.
Solid
An arrangement of type lines set vertically as closely as possible. Also referred to as solid set.
Specialty advertising
This is the older term used for Promotional products (see above). It remains a commonly used term by many companies.
Split run
Two or more different forms of an advertisement which are ran simultaneously in different copies of the same publication, used to test the effectiveness of one advertisement over another to appeal to regional or other specific markets.
Spot television (or radio)
Time slots in geographic broadcast areas, purchased on a market-to-market basis rather than through a network.
Spread
Refers to a pair of facing pages in a periodical, or an advertisement which is printed across two such pages.
Staggered schedule
A schedule of advertisements in a number of periodicals which have different insertion dates.
Starch scores
A result of a method used by Daniel Starch and staff in their studies of advertising readership which include noted, or the percent of readers who viewed the tested ad, associated, or the percent of readers who associated the ad with the advertiser, and read-most, or the percent of readers who read half or more of the copy.
Stet
A Latin term meaning "let it stand," which instructs a printer or typesetter to ignore an alteration called for in a proof.
Storyboard
A blueprint for a TV commercial which is drawn to portray copy, dialogue, and action, with caption notes regarding filming, audio components, and script.
Strategic planning
Determination of the steps required to reach an objective of achieving the optimum fit between the organization and the marketplace.
Stratified selection
An equally measured statistical sample which represents all the categories into which the population has been divided.
Stripping
Positioning film negatives or positives of copy and illustrations for the purpose of creating a printing plate for that ad or page. Also referred to as image assembly.
Subliminal persuasion
An advertising message presented below the threshold of consciousness. A visual or auditory message that is allegedly perceived psychologically, but not consciously. Also called Subception.
Superimposition (super)
A process in TV production where an image, words, or phrases are imposed over another image.
Supplementary media
Non-mass media vehicles that are used to promote products, e.g., Point-of-purchase advertising.
Supplier
Companies that sell goods or services to an advertising agency for their use in constructing advertisements, e.g., design studios, color houses, printers, and paper producers.
Syndicated program
A television or radio program that is distributed in more than one market by an organization other than a network.
Tabloid
A size of newspaper that is roughly half the size of a standard newspaper. A page size is normally 14" high by 12" wide.
Tachistoscope testing
A method used in advertising and packaging recall tests. Used to measure a viewer's recognition and perception of various elements within an ad by using the different lighting and exposure techniques of a Tachistoscope - a device that projects an image at a fraction of a second.
Tag line
A slogan or phrase that visually conveys the most important product attribute or benefit that the advertiser wishes to convey. Generally, a theme to a campaign.
Target audience
A specified audience or demographic group for which an advertising message is designed
Target market
A group of individuals whom collectively, are intended recipients of an advertiser's message.
Tear sheets
A page cut from a magazine or newspaper that is sent to the advertiser as proof of the ad insertion. Also used to check color reproduction of advertisements.
Teaser campaign
An advertising campaign aimed at arousing interest and curiosity for a product.
Telemarketing
The use of the telephone as a medium to sell, promote, or solicit goods and services.
Theater testing
A method used in testing the viewer responses of a large, randomly selected audience after being exposed to an ad.
Thumbnail
A rough, simple, often small sketch used to show the basic layout of an ad.
Time compression
A technique used in broadcast production to delete time from television commercials.
Tracking studies
A type of research study that follows the same group of subjects over an extended period of time.
Trade advertising
Advertising designed to increase sales specifically for retailers and wholesalers.
Trade character
People, characters, and animals that are used in advertising and are identified with the products, e.g. Jolly Green Giant and Tony the Tiger.
Trade name
The name under which a company operates.
Trade stimulants
Sales promotions directed toward retailers and distributors that are designed to motivate them both and increase sales.
Trademark
Icon, symbol, or brand name used to identify a specific manufacturer, product, or service.
Traffic builder
A promotional tactic using direct mail. Designed to draw consumers to the mailer's location.
Transit advertising
Advertising that appears on public transportation or on waiting areas and bus stops.
Transparency
A positive, color photographic image on clear film.
Transparent ink
Ink used in four color printing process that allows for colors underneath the ink to show through.
Trim size
A size of a magazine or newspaper page after trimming.
Turnover
The rate of audience change for a specific program during a specific amount of time.
Type font
Refers to the complete alphabet for a specific typeface.
Typeface
A designed alphabet with consistent characteristics and attributes.
Typography
The designated setting of type for printing purposes.
Unaided recall
A research method in which a respondent is given no assistance in answering questions regarding a specific advertisement.
Unfair advertising
Advertising that is likely to harm the consumer. The FTC has the power to regulate unfair advertising that falls within a very specific legal definition.
Unique selling proposition
The unique product benefit that the competition can not claim.
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Vehicle
A specific channel or publication for carrying the advertising message to a target audience. For example, one medium would be magazines, while one vehicle would be Time magazine.
Vertical discount
A reduced rate offered to advertisers who purchase airtime on a broadcast medium for a limited amount of time, e.g., one week.
Vertical publications
Publications whose editorial content deals with the interests of a specific industry, e.g., National Petroleum Magazine and Retail Baking Today.
Vignette
(1) An illustration that has soft edges, often produced by using cutouts or masks. (2) A photograph or halftone in which the edges, or parts of, are shaded off to a very light gray.
Voiceover (VO)
The technique of using the voice of an unseen speaker during film, slides, or other voice material.
Waste circulation
(1) Advertising in an area where the product or service is not available or has no sales potential. (2) Persons in an advertiser's audience who are not potential consumers.
Wave scheduling
An advertising strategy that consists of scheduling space in the media in intermittent periods, e.g., two weeks on, two weeks off.
Wear out
The point reached when an advertising campaign loses it's effectiveness due to repeated overplay of ads.
Weight
(1) An adjustment made in a survey sample to correct for demographic or geographic imbalances. (2) Number of exposures of an advertisement.
White space
Unoccupied parts of a print advertisement, including between blocks of type, illustrations, headlines, etc.
Wipe
A transition of scenes in a visual production where one image appears to wipe the previous one from the screen.
· B-roll: film or television footage that plays while an announcer speaks over it
· backgrounder: an in-depth document that explains a product, service or company in the context of its need, place in the industry and place in history; often supports and explains an accompanying press release
· boilerplate: standard wording about a company that usually appears near the bottom of all company-issued press releases
· buzz: media and public attention given to a company, its products or services
· call tree: a list of names and contact information that should be notified immediately in a crisis
· client list: a list of a company's key clients; sometimes includes contact information
· communications audit: a systematic survey of members of a target audience (often members of the media or potential customers) to determine awareness of or reaction to a product, service or company
· e-zine: online newsletter or magazine
· FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions): a list of questions and answers for the media pertaining to a press release; often included in a press kit
· follow-on: a product, service or article, for instance, that results directly from a previous product, service or article
· goal: the primary result a company is attempting to achieve through its public relations efforts
· hit: a visit to a particular page on a web site by a web visitor
· hype/hyperbole: overdone exaggeration
· inverted pyramid: journalistic style of writing where the most important information is written first, followed by information of decreasing importance (this allows the reader to stop reading having gained the most important information; it also allows editors to cut or edit the story from the bottom up without omitting vital information)
· jargon: language known only to members of a specific group, company or industry
· marcom: marketing communications
· media policy: organizational directive as to how company representatives will communicate with the media
· media relations: the function of gaining positive media attention and coverage
· mind share: amount of thinking an individual or group does about a particular product, service or company
· news conference: a scheduled presentation to a group of media representatives
· pass-along rate: the number of times a received document (article, newsletter, brochure, report, etc.) is shared with other individuals
· pitch: a prepared sales presentation, usually one-on-one (in public relations, it's generally an attempt to get positive coverage or analyst review)
· PMS: PMS is the acronym given to color codes associated with a specific ink color library. Print shops often refer to a PMS color such as "PMS 328," a nice teal color. PMS stands for Pantone Matching System.
· positioning (1): placement of a company, its products or services in a market category or in relation to its competition
· positioning (2): the location a company's web page appears on a search engine after a searcher enters key words to search
· press kit: several press deliverables combined in one package (usually a folder)
· press release: a paper or electronic document submitted to the media with the intent of gaining media coverage
· proofread: carefully reading a document to weed out errors
· public affairs: the public policy aspect of public relations.
· public relations: the function of creating and maintaining a public image or identity
· public relations consultant: independent professionals who provide public relations guidance
· Q&A/rude Q&A: a document that lists predictions of difficult questions that may be posed to a company spokesperson, and the best answers the spokesperson can give to answer the questions and meet the company's objectives
· query letter: a letter sent to a publication asking whether the publication would be interested in receiving a bylined article
· repositioning: changing the placement of a company, its products or services in a market category or in relation to its competition
· retraction: media correction of information previously and erroneously reported
· running columns: regularly appearing articles of a specific theme or topic in a publication
· self-mailer: a brochure or other document that contains postal information (return address, bulk mail insignia or room for postage) and room for an address label so that it can mailed by itself, without having to place it in an envelope.
· shelf-life: how long a document is held onto by the receiver
· sig file: a signature block consistently used that includes a tag line about your company.
· simultaneous submission: sending a bylined article to more than one publication at the same time (often frowned upon)
· strategies: methods used to accomplish objectives
· strategic partner: a company or organization that another company or organization aligns itself with to benefit both parties
· tactics: action items to support strategies and objectives
· tag line: a sentence or phrase that provides a creative description of an organization's position (e.g., Red Cross: We Save Lives).
· trade publication: a magazine, newspaper or newsletter published by members of a specific industry
· Unique Selling Proposition (USP): A one-line description of your company's products or services that differentiates it among your market from the offerings of its competitors
· white paper: a technical document that explains how a product or service functions and its purpose
Theories of media effects
1. agenda setting effect – The media rank events in a hierarchy of importance, encouraging people not so much what to think but what to think about.
2. alienation effect – notion that the mass character of media creates in audiences feelings of isolation, disengagement from membership of the community and therefore a sense of alienation, or estrangement, from society's values.
3. Amplification effect – By giving intensive coverage to certain sotries aqnd issues, their importance is amplified.
4. Boomerang effect – When media coverage backfires and achieves responsesor reactions from the public that are contrary to those desired by media.
5. Catharsis effect – This word catharsis comes from the Grek, meaning 'purification' or 'purgation'. Today it is defined as emotinal release. We watch a play, film or TV drama and its humour, tragedy or violence triggers release of our emotions. Some commentators believe that watching screen vilence has aq cathartic effect. It releases tensions which insome circumtances might be expressed through real violence. In other words, fictionalised violence may head off real violent behaviour.
6. Copy cat effect – what people experience through the media may stimulate 'copy cat behaviour', acts of individual violence, for example, or street rioting.
7. Desensitising effect – over exposure to violence or suffering might make us hardened to what we see. This has been related to what has been termed 'compassion fatigue'.
8. Displacement – this happens between media, for example, the arrival of TV, while not eclipsing radio certainly displaced it, shifting it towards the margins of audience use in comparison with its former dominant position.
9. Distraction effect – Usually relates to the ways in which the media often distract public attention from important issues by concentrating on other, usually more entertaining stories.
10. Enlargement effect – capacity to expand people's knowledge and system of beliefs.
11. Hastening effect – When media coverage of events hastens the development of those events and responses to them, usually on the part of those in authority. Media publicity on health hazards may hasten government legislation.
12. Inoculation effect – Flue jobs inject a mild dose of flu virus into the bloodstream thereby serving to build up resistance tocontagion. The same goes fo the media 'bug'.
13. Mainstream effect – Part of Cultiation theory most closely associated with American researcher George Gerbener, the natrue of media coverage tends to create a convergence of political attitudes towards a mainstream position, but one which drifts rightwards. Coverage blurs, blens otherwise divergent groups and then bends the mainsrea in the direction of the mediaum's interest in prfit, populist politics and power'.
14. Narcoticising dysfunction effect – The media hassthe effect of drugging peole, leading to mass apathy and general passivity.
15. No previous knowledge effect – Where audience is uninformd about matters it is more likely to believe what the media tell them.
16. Reciprocal effect – Coverage affects and changes the nature of what is covered. A game such as darts, traditionally a bar-room gameto accomapny the pints, has through TV coverage become a spector sport, and particularly suited to tv. Equally, a party poltical confernce,traditionally an occasion for chewing the political fat and permitting ordinary party memebers to get things off their chests, is – once covered by TV – turned into a political spectacle where image triumps over substance.
17. Reinforcement effects – Opinions, attitudes, beliefs, prejudices are deemed more likely to be reinforced than chagned by media coverage.
18. Spill over effect – When people outside the intended target audience are affected by media coverage and comments.
19. Third person effect – 'influence of presumed influence' – perception of effects on 'thers'. Thus fears about the effects of the portrayal of violence relatd, for example, to children or teenagers rather than to those actually doing the perceiving.
20. Trivialising effect – Charge
21. Media Dependency theory
22. Bullet theory
23. Hypodermic needle theory
24. cultivation theory
25. need and gratification theory.
